Executive Summary
Women from national, linguistic, cultural and religious minorities in the Islamic Republic of Iran face the double-discrimination and oppression, both as women and as members of marginalized and communities. The Islamic Republic of Iran is an autocratic state in which gender-discrimination and state-sponsored gender oppression meet the systematic and institutionalized discrimination of minority ethnic communities. The Iranian government has discriminated against women from national, linguistic, cultural, and religious communities for decades, leading to a disproportionate number of women living in marginalized minority regions experiencing arbitrary arrest, police brutality and limitation of freedom of expression in private and public spaces compared to women living in the central regions of the country.
This reflection is based on UNPO’s decades of experience working side-by-side national minorities in Iran and conversations with women activists from these marginalized regions. We engage in this important conversation as part of our Empowering Unrepresented Women programme which aims to amplify the voices of unrepresented women and raise awareness of their cases globally. In this reflection, we highlight the ongoing struggles faced by women from diverse national backgrounds at the intersection of gender, class, ethnicity and language. We do so in the context of the Woman, Life, Freedom movement to explore how this movement highlights the importance of cultural and linguistic rights in the women’s rights movement in Iran. We suggest that the movement represents a form of empowerment for those who participate in it, and that it has created opportunities for greater visibility of and support for women from national minorities.
Authors: Mercè Monje Cano and Elena Gordillo, in collaboration with Kurdish and other Iranian minorities
Document Cover Photo: “Women Life Freedom” by Tim Dennell via Flickr
Read the Reflection Paper below and download it here for further details.
I. Introduction
Two years ago, Jina Amini, a 22-year-old young Kurdish woman from Iranian Kurdistan died under suspicious circumstances after being arrested by Iran’s morality police. Although the Law Enforcement Command of the Islamic Republic of Iran stated that she had collapsed from a heart attack, evidence of police brutality from eyewitnesses and leaked medical scans revealed that Jina had died as a result of police brutality (1). This tragic event became widespread in Iranian media but it was described as the death of “Mahsa” Amini, not Jina Amini, her actual Kurdish name. This series of events, including the misnaming of Jina, clearly demonstrates the deep-rooted forms of discrimination against women and further reinforced the discrimination faced not only by women in general, but particularly by women from national minorities. The Islamic Republic of Iran is a country where women from national minorities experience discrimination and outright systemic repression on the basis of both their gender and their cultural and ethnic identity. Jina’s death, which sparked protests in Iranian Kurdistan under the slogan ‘Woman, Life, Freedom,’ quickly spread across most cities in Iran, particularly in the country’s deprived regions. The movement soon transcended national borders, reaching the streets and public squares of foreign countries and drawing the attention of the international community and numerous global organizations. This widespread uprising became known as the ‘Woman, Life, Freedom’ movement, symbolizing not only the struggle for women’s rights but also a broader call for freedom and justice in the face of systemic oppression.
The Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO) works as an international member based organization and solidarity network composed of over 40 unrepresented nations and peoples who come together to advocate for human rights in their communities. Currently, the organization represents four national minorities in Iran; Iranian Kurdistan (the region where Jina Amini was from), Southern Azerbaijan, Ahwazi Arabs and West Balochistan. Over the years, the UNPO has collaborated with women activists, community leaders and grassroots organizations from these national minorities.
In this discussion, we reflect on over 30 years of experience working with minority communities in Iran and the ongoing challenges and opportunities they face. Here, we want to highlight the Woman, Life, Freedom movement. We strongly believe that this movement seeks to address not only the systematic discrimination against women in the Islamic Republic of Iran but also the disproportionate discrimination and systematic oppression faced specifically by women from various national minorities in the country.
Jina Amini was one of the millions of Kurds living in Iran. Kurds, along with Azerbaijanis, Lurs, Ahwazi Arabs, Balochs and Turkmens, constitute the largest ethno-linguistic national minorities in Iran. The slogan Woman, Life, Freedom has its roots in the Kurdish women’s movement of the 2000s and later gained international recognition following Jina Amini’s death and the international movement that was triggered as a result (2). The Woman, Life, Freedom movement should be seen as a movement that brings the rights of women from national minorities to the forefront. In this reflection, we want to frame the movement as one of feminist resistance, visibility and bravery to highlight the very personal and less visible aspect of the movement, that of personal and community empowerment. We draw on our observations of how the Woman, Life, Freedom movement has shaped Iran and the experiences of women from national minorities participating in the protests, conversations with diaspora populations and interviews with female activists from the national minorities in Iran.
Throughout, we reflect on the relationship between gender and ethnicity, culture and language in the specific context of the Islamic Republic of Iran and how this intersection leads to the disproportionate discrimination and systemic oppression of women from national minorities. Women from the national minorities face systemic discrimination, with additional challenges for ethnic minorities. The Woman, Life, Freedom movement, rooted in the Kurdish women’s movement, addresses both gender-based oppression and ethnic discrimination, making it a powerful symbol of intersectional resistance in Iran.
Ultimately, we will use this anniversary of the Woman, Life, Freedom movement as an opportunity to reflect on UNPO’s work with minority women in the Islamic Republic of Iran and to open a discussion on next steps in our Empowering Unrepresented Women programme.
II. Intersectionality: A Critical Framework for Advancing Human Rights
Intersectionality is a critical analytical tool for understanding the multiple layers of disadvantage faced by minority women. Coined by Kimberlé Crenshaw, intersectionality sheds light on how various social categories—such as race, ethnicity, nationality, language, religion, legal status, and socioeconomic status—interact to create unique experiences of discrimination. For women from ethnic, linguistic, religious, and stateless national minorities, political participation is not just a gender issue; it is shaped by these intersecting identities, making their engagement with institutions of power highly restrictive and unequal.
Minority women do not constitute a homogeneous group with identical interests. Instead, their experiences are shaped by their specific contexts, which include structural and institutional barriers, social prejudice, and the compounding effects of multiple forms of discrimination. Women and girls belonging to minority communities, including ethnic, religious and linguistic communities, continue to face multiple forms of persecution based on their gender and minority status.
In a recent submission to the UN Special Procedures (3), the UNPO drew international attention to the case of Ms. Zara Mohammadi, a case which clearly demonstrates the intersection between gender, ethnicity, language and religion in Iran. Zara Mohammadi is a human rights defender and Kurdish language activist who was sentenced to serve a 5-year prison sentence in Sine [Sanandaj] Central Prison on charges of national security offenses under Article 287 of the Islamic Code. Ms. Mohammadi is Kurdish, one of the largest national minorities with an estimated population between 8 and 10 million. Zara Mohammadi has experienced the widespread discrimination that persists against the Kurds and other national minorities in Iran, which is deeply entrenched in the legal frameworks, policies, and cultural attitudes existing in both the private and public sphere. In addition, she is a Sunni Muslim, which makes her experience even more challenging in the light of the discriminatory policies towards people belonging to religious minorities who are not Shia Muslims. Alongside this, she is also a woman in a patriarchal country where women are treated as second-class citizens. It is vital that when looking at this case we highlight that it is these multiple aspects of her identity that led to her arbitrary arrest.
The need to look at the challenges of minority women in different public and private spaces from an intersectional lens was highlighted in the 2019 report by the UNPO and the Coppieters Foundation entitled “Minority women in politics – The political participation and representation of minority and migrant women in Europe”. Here, we explored how numerous identity factors such as language, culture, religion, gender, class and age influence the representation and participation of women from national minorities in decision-making processes. The launch of this study also marked the beginning of UNPO’s Empowering Unrepresented Women programme. We are confident that applying once again a holistic and intersectional view on the case of minority women in Iran can shed light on the complex set of challenges they face and help advance their rights as women and members of a marginalized minority group.
III. The Rights of Women from Minority Ethnic Backgrounds in Iran
National and religious minorities make up approximately half of Iran’s population. Despite this diversity, the central authorities have, for decades, imposed a homogenous Iranian identity rooted in Persian language ,culture and identity. National minorities in Iran including Kurds, Baluchs, Ahwazi Arabs, Azerbbaijani Turks, Gilak to name a few, are routinely denied equal access to justice, education, employment and political participation. They are disproportionately targeted for arbitrary arrest, detention and execution on political and national security charges. Human rights defenders from national minorities have been arrested for peacefully exercising their rights to freedom of expression and assembly to demand their fundamental rights and, in some cases, killed for doing so (4). While reliable and up-to-date data on extrajudicial killings and executions are difficult to find, it has been clearly observed that the death penalty is disproportionately used in Iran against Baluchs and Kurds (5).
In addition, the central government’s rhetoric continuously vilifies and demonizes national minorities in an effort to (mis)communicate to the larger Iranian community that these communities pose a threat to the ‘unity of the country’. Unfortunately, this discourse has significantly shaped negative perceptions among Persians, reinforcing prejudices and deepening divisions between the majority and national minorities.
The repression of national minorities is coupled with the severe restrictions on women’s rights in Iran since the late 20th century. The Islamic Republic of Iran is a country where male dominance and state-sponsored gendered oppressive ideologies collide, allowing for the institutionalized and systematic discrimination of women. The most recent Global Gender Gap Report, published by the World Economic Forum in 2023, ranked Iran 143, out of 146 countries (6). Women in Iran face significant restrictions on their rights, enforced by laws and social norms rooted in a strict interpretation of Islamic law. They are subject to mandatory veiling, have limited in their access to certain jobs, and require male guardianship for certain legal matters such as travel and divorce. In addition, thousands of women have been arbitrary detained by the so-called morality police, and increased street surveillance mechanisms are being used as a tool to identify and punish women who do not comply with the mandatory hijab rule (7). Activism for women’s rights is often met with harsh punishment, including imprisonment, surveillance, and physical abuse. Additionally, women face systemic gender discrimination in the legal and economic spheres, which severely limits their freedoms and opportunities.
Women, especially those from national minorities, also face significant challenges in participating safely in decision-making processes, which prevents them from advocating for their rights or challenging existing human rights violations. Politics has traditionally been, and continues to be, a male-dominated field. Data show that women are underrepresented at all levels of decision-making worldwide with an even smaller proportion of women involved in politics belonging to underrepresented and national minorities. Women from national minorities in Iran experience state-sponsored violence and discrimination for being women and for belonging to a marginalized minority group. Visibility and safe engagement are crucial for minority women to achieve equal representation and participation in decision-making spheres, granting them the ability to shape their own political, social, and cultural destinies.
As we have seen, the exclusion of women from national minorities from political processes is not just a matter of gender discrimination but is deeply intertwined with their ethnic, religious, and cultural identities. Women living in ethnic minority regions face greater barriers to education and employment. Regions with a predominantly national minority population have been disregarded by the government and have seen less investment in services and public welfare, while experiencing higher levels of police surveillance and brutality. The access barrier for women from national minorities in Iran to safely and equally participate in decision-making spheres makes it more challenging to advocate for their rights, perpetuating a cycle of inequality.
IV. Woman, Life, Freedom: A Turning Point
The “Women, Life, Freedom” movement is not just a slogan but a powerful expression rooted in long struggle of Kurdish women for emancipation and liberation. This movement encompasses three key dimensions. First, it is a movement against the misogynistic Islamic state and gender apartheid in Iran, challenging oppressive laws that marginalize women. Second, it stands against the patriarchal structures in the region, pushing for broader societal change. Finally, it is a revolt of the marginalized against a century of centralized state power, representing the voices of the unrepresented and oppressed peoples in their struggle for dignity, freedom and democracy. The movement has thus created an opportunity for women and men from different national minorities and social classes to protest the ongoing human rights violations that have been taking place in Iran.
A noticeable observation made by the UNPO and its members in Iran over the past couple of years has been the sense of empowerment and unity that the movement has created among national minorities across the country. Visibility, unity and resistance have emerged as key themes in conversations with community members and women activists about the protests. These conversations revealed how prior to the Woman, Life, Freedom movement women from national minorities were being systematically discriminated against by the Iranian regime and central government as well as facing discrimination from people from central regions dominated by upper class residents of Persian identity, including women. This was clearly seen in the misnaming of Jina Amini as Mahsa Amini by the Iranian media and later by the international media, which goes against her Kurdish identity, a clear sign of discrimination and repression. However, the movement has provided a space to criticize the misnaming of Jina, and in doing so, shed a light on the ongoing forms of discrimination that women from national minorities in particular face in Iran.
Women from the Baluch, Azerbaijani Turks, and Ahwazi Arab minorities expressed the power of unity, noting that for the first time, different ethnicities and marginalized groups are coming together in awareness of one each other’s struggles. A Baluch activist highlighted that previously unheard voices, especially women, are now raising awareness within their families, with modern technology and social media playing a critical role. An interesting analogy was drawn between the women’s rights movement in Iran and the global feminist movement. Another activist had noted that the Iranian feminist movement has historically been dominated by Persian and Shia voices, and has often overlooked the specific struggles of women from other ethno-linguistic minorities. This led to the assumption that the liberation of Iranian women equated to the liberation of those who resembled the dominant group. Fortunately, the Woman, Freedom, Life movement has brought about a shift in perspective toward more intersectional equality, supporting women of all national minorities in Iran.
The positive accounts of women who have witnessed the changes brought about by the Woman, Life, Freedom movement show that there is a strong aspect of resistance and empowerment created by these protests. The visibility of the struggles of women from national minorities in Iran as a result of the protests has created a space for women and men to speak out about the human rights violations in their communities and to gain the international media attention. This has created an opportunity that shouldn’t go unnoticed.
However, significant challenges remain for the Woman, Life, Freedom movement and its participants remain. Demonstrations in Iran have met with extreme police brutality, and participants continue face persecution. The Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on the Islamic Republic of Iran in 2024 (8) found that the intersection of gender and ethnic persecution resulted in gross human rights violations, including extrajudicial executions, the weaponization of sexual violence, arbitrary arrests, and torture, many of which amounted to crimes against humanity as women from national minorities were targeted by the police. This year, on the second year anniversary of the movement, human rights organizations around the world have issued an urgent call for the release of women human rights defenders imprisoned in Iran (9). Women in Iran, particularly those from national minorities, continue to face restrictions on speaking publicly about the issue, and outside of Iran, transnational repression of family members and friends of demonstrators is an ongoing issue.
As the experience of the participants in the “Woman, Life, Freedom” movement shows, participation of women from national minorities in demonstrations and political life can be dangerous and even life-threatening. For this reason, most of the everyday experiences of women from national minorities, who experience discrimination and oppression on the basis of both their gender and ethnicity or religious background, remain invisible. Supporting safe ways for women from national minorities to express their opinions and participate in decision-making at all levels is essential to ensuring peaceful, inclusive and democratic societies.
V. Conclusion
Moving forward, the way to amplify the voices of underrepresented women in Iran lies in recognizing the rich diversity of their experiences. It is crucial to understand that these women are not only victims, but also key agents of change, whose participation in the national discourse is essential for the creation of a truly democratic society.
In light of this reflection, the UNPO is committed to promoting an intersectional approach to human rights, and in particular the rights of women from national minorities in the Islamic Republic of Iran. This reflection serves as a foundation to further advance our work with our member national minorities in Iran and the female activists in them as part of our Empowering Unrepresented Women campaign. Through this programme, we continue to raise the visibility of the challenges faced by these women, highlight their involvement in social movements, promote their inclusion in decision-making processes, and encourage greater opportunities for women within UNPO member movements.
Sources
- Press Release. UN OHCHR, 2023. Available here. Accessed on the 18th September 2024.
- Britannica, 2024. Woman, Life, Freedom protest slogan. Available here.
- UNPO and KHHK-G, 2022. Detention of Ms. Zara Mohammadi, Submission to the UN Special Procedures. More information available here.
- UN OHCRH, 2019. Iran: UN expert says ethnic, religious minorities face discrimination.
- The Iran Primer. United States Institute of Peace, 2024. U.S. Report: Ethnic & Religious Discrimination in Iran.
- World Economic Forum, 2023. Global Gender Gap Report.
- UN OHCHR, 2024. Iran: Crackdown on hijab law.
- Independent International Fact-finding Mission on the Islamic Republic of Iran. 2024. Minority rights violations during the “Woman, Life, Freedom” movement in the Islamic Republic of Iran.
- Frontline Defenders, 2024. On the 2nd Anniversary of Woman, Life, Freedom.
